Codes of ethics: Normative and Descriptive ethical theories

Codes of ethics, also known as ethical codes, are formal documents that define acceptable behaviors and outline ethical standards within an organization. These codes serve as a guide for the proper conduct expected of employees, management, and the entire organization, establishing the principles and values that should drive decision-making processes. Typically, a code of ethics addresses topics such as honesty, integrity, transparency, fairness, and respect for stakeholder interests. It also often includes standards for professional conduct, confidentiality, conflict of interest, and compliance with legal obligations. By explicitly stating what is expected in various situations, codes of ethics help prevent ambiguity in ethical decision-making and provide a benchmark for evaluating individual and corporate behavior. They play a critical role in promoting a positive organizational culture, enhancing the reputation of the organization, and guiding it in fulfilling its duties responsibly and ethically.

Normative ethical theories:

Normative ethical theories provide frameworks to determine what actions are morally right or wrong. These theories propose different principles and methods for assessing the morality of actions based on various criteria.

• Utilitarianism:

This theory, developed by philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, holds that the rightness or wrongness of an action is determined by its consequences. The guiding principle of utilitarianism is to maximize overall happiness or utility; actions are deemed morally right if they result in the greatest good for the greatest number of people. Utilitarianism is further divided into act utilitarianism (assessing each act individually) and rule utilitarianism (following rules that generally promote the greatest good).

• Deontology:

Developed by Immanuel Kant, deontology focuses on the inherent rightness or wrongness of actions themselves, rather than their consequences. According to Kantian deontology, actions are morally right if they are in accordance with a moral rule or duty, and if they respect the inherent worth of all rational beings. Central to this theory is the idea that moral actions must be universally applicable and performed out of respect for moral law, encapsulated in Kant’s “Categorical Imperative.”

• Virtue Ethics:

This theory, with roots in ancient Greek philosophy, particularly Aristotle, emphasizes virtues or moral character over rules or consequences. Virtue ethics argues that morally correct actions are the product of internal characteristics and virtues, such as wisdom, courage, compassion, and justice. It focuses on developing good character traits that enable individuals to live and act morally within a community.

• Rights Theory:

This theory asserts that individuals have inherent rights that derive from human nature or moral principles that are universally applicable. These rights, such as the right to life, liberty, and security, impose duties on others to respect and protect these rights. Actions are considered morally right if they respect and uphold these rights.

• Contractarianism:

Based on the ideas of Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and more recently, John Rawls, this theory suggests that moral norms derive from the social contract agreed upon by individuals living in a society. The theory holds that moral rules are justified by the mutual benefits they offer and are agreed upon by rational individuals seeking to live in a cooperative society.

Descriptive ethical theories:

Descriptive ethical theories are a branch of ethics that focus on observing and describing the moral behaviors, beliefs, and practices that exist within different societies without necessarily endorsing them. Unlike normative ethical theories, which prescribe how people ought to behave, descriptive ethics seeks to understand how people actually behave and why they hold certain moral beliefs. This approach is often employed in fields like anthropology, sociology, psychology, and history to provide an empirical account of morality. Here are some key aspects of descriptive ethical theories:

• Empirical Investigation:

Descriptive ethics involves collecting data about the moral practices, norms, and values of different cultures or groups. Researchers might use surveys, interviews, participant observation, or case studies to gather information about what specific groups consider to be right or wrong.

• Cultural Relativity:

Descriptive ethics often explores the concept of cultural relativity, which acknowledges that moral standards can vary significantly between cultures and that there is no absolute standard of morality applicable to all cultures. This theory seeks to understand the origins and variations in moral systems across different societies.

• Psychological Basis:

Some descriptive ethical theories focus on the psychological underpinnings of moral decisions and behaviors. This includes studies on moral development, such as Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, which explore how people’s ability to reason about ethical issues evolves over time.

• Sociological Perspectives:

Descriptive ethics also considers how social structures, institutions, and class affect moral norms and practices. This can include examining how laws, religion, family structures, and economic systems influence moral behaviors and beliefs.

• Historical Context:

Historical approaches in descriptive ethics look at how moral concepts and practices have changed over time and how historical events have shaped contemporary moral understandings.

• Normative Implications:

While primarily focused on describing moral phenomena, descriptive ethics can also inform normative ethics by providing a solid empirical foundation from which normative theories can be evaluated or critiqued. Understanding what people actually believe and do can challenge or support certain normative ethical theories.

Key differences between Normative and Descriptive ethical theories