Transaction cycle
The transaction cycle in trading refers to the series of steps involved in executing a trade from the point of order placement to the final settlement of the trade. It encompasses all the stages that a trade goes through, including order submission, order matching, trade execution, clearing, and settlement. The transaction cycle ensures that trades are conducted smoothly, accurately, and in compliance with regulatory requirements.
Stages of the transaction cycle in trading:
Order Placement:
The transaction cycle begins when an investor or trader places an order to buy or sell a financial security. The order is typically placed through a trading platform provided by a brokerage firm or through Direct Market Access (DMA) for institutional clients.
Order Routing:
Once the order is placed, it is sent to the exchange or the trading venue where the financial security is listed. The order routing process ensures that the order reaches the correct trading platform.
Order Matching:
At the exchange or trading venue, the order is matched with an opposing order based on price and time priority. When a buyer’s bid price matches a seller’s ask price, a trade is executed.
Trade Execution:
After the order is matched, the trade is executed, and the financial security is transferred from the seller’s account to the buyer’s account. The price at which the trade is executed becomes the trade price.
Trade Confirmation:
Both the buyer and the seller receive trade confirmations, providing details of the executed trade, including the security name, quantity, trade price, and trade date.
Trade Clearing:
Following trade execution, the trade undergoes the clearing process. Clearing involves the calculation of obligations for buyers and sellers and the determination of the net positions to be settled.
Settlement:
Settlement is the final stage of the transaction cycle, where the actual transfer of funds and securities takes place. It is the process of fulfilling the contractual obligations between the buyer and the seller. In most markets, settlement occurs on a T+2 basis, meaning two business days after the trade date.
Post-Settlement Activities:
After settlement, investors receive statements reflecting the updated holdings and transaction details in their trading accounts. Any corporate actions, such as dividends or stock splits, related to the traded securities are also processed during this stage.
Throughout the transaction cycle, various regulatory and risk management checks are performed to ensure compliance with market regulations and to manage potential risks, such as trade errors or failed settlements.
The smooth and efficient completion of the transaction cycle is essential for maintaining market integrity, providing transparency, and instilling confidence in the trading process for all participants.
Settlement agencies Securities and funds settlement
Settlement agencies play a crucial role in the securities and funds settlement process, ensuring the smooth and efficient transfer of securities and funds between buyers and sellers after a trade is executed. These agencies act as intermediaries that facilitate the settlement process, mitigating counterparty risk and ensuring compliance with regulatory requirements. There are two main aspects to settlement agencies: securities settlement and funds settlement.
Securities Settlement:
Securities settlement involves the transfer of ownership of financial securities from the seller to the buyer after a trade is executed. The securities settlement process typically follows a T+2 (trade date plus two business days) settlement cycle in many markets. During this time, the following activities take place:
- Central Securities Depository (CSD): In many countries, a Central Securities Depository acts as the primary settlement agency for securities. It holds and maintains records of securities in electronic form, allowing for efficient transfer of ownership between market participants.
- Clearing House: A clearing house, also known as a clearing corporation, acts as an intermediary between the buyer and the seller. It ensures the netting of trades, meaning that all trades executed on a particular day are matched, and only the net amount is settled, reducing the overall number of transactions.
- Delivery Versus Payment (DVP): DVP is a settlement method where the delivery of securities occurs simultaneously with the payment for those securities. This ensures that both parties fulfill their obligations at the same time, reducing settlement risk.
- Dematerialization: In modern settlement systems, physical certificates are replaced by dematerialized or electronic records of ownership, held by the CSD. This reduces the risk of loss, theft, and fraud associated with physical securities.
Funds Settlement:
Funds settlement involves the transfer of money between the buyer’s and seller’s accounts to settle the trade. This process ensures that the agreed-upon payment for the securities is made promptly and accurately. Funds settlement usually occurs through the country’s central bank or a designated payment system. Key components of funds settlement include:
- Real-Time Gross Settlement (RTGS): Many countries have RTGS systems that facilitate real-time settlement of funds between banks. RTGS ensures that payments are processed individually and without netting, reducing settlement risk.
- Payment Gateways: Online payment gateways and electronic fund transfer systems are often used to facilitate retail transactions, allowing individuals and businesses to settle payments electronically.
- Automated Clearing House (ACH): ACH systems are used for batch processing of non-urgent and low-value payments, such as salaries, dividends, and utility bill payments.
- Settlement Banks: Settlement banks, also known as clearing banks, are responsible for settling transactions between banks and ensuring that funds are transferred accurately and securely.
Both securities and funds settlement processes work together to complete the transaction cycle and provide a reliable and efficient settlement mechanism for the financial markets. Settlement agencies play a vital role in ensuring the integrity and stability of the settlement process, which is essential for maintaining investor confidence in the financial system.
Shortages handling
Shortages handling refers to the process of managing and resolving situations where there is an insufficient quantity of securities or funds available to complete a settlement transaction. Shortages can occur in both securities settlement and funds settlement processes and may lead to settlement failures or delayed settlement. Handling shortages is crucial to ensure the smooth functioning of financial markets and prevent disruptions to the settlement process.
Shortages in Securities Settlement: In securities settlement, shortages can occur when there are not enough securities available to fulfill the delivery obligations of a trade. This can happen due to various reasons, such as:
- Failed Deliveries: If the seller fails to deliver the securities as agreed upon in the trade, a shortage arises on the buyer’s side.
- Partial Delivery: Partial delivery occurs when the seller delivers only a portion of the agreed-upon quantity of securities, resulting in a shortage.
- Corporate Actions: Corporate actions, such as stock splits or bonus issues, can sometimes lead to discrepancies in the number of securities available for settlement.
Handling Shortages in Securities Settlement: To handle shortages in securities settlement, the following measures are typically taken:
- Buy-in: In case of a failed delivery by the seller, the buyer may opt for a buy-in process. The buyer purchases the required securities from the open market at the prevailing market price to fulfill the settlement obligation. The cost incurred in the buy-in is typically borne by the defaulting seller.
- Partial Settlement: If partial delivery occurs, the settlement can proceed for the delivered portion, and the buyer and seller can negotiate to resolve the remaining shortage.
- Reconciliation and Communication: Proper reconciliation of trade details and effective communication between relevant parties, such as the Central Securities Depository (CSD), clearinghouse, and market participants, are essential to identify and address shortages promptly.
Shortages in Funds Settlement: In funds settlement, shortages can arise when there are insufficient funds in the buyer’s account to pay for the purchased securities or when the seller does not receive the expected payment for the sold securities. This can happen due to reasons such as:
- Insufficient Balance: The buyer’s account may not have enough funds to cover the purchase amount.
- Payment Delays: Payment delays in the banking system can lead to funds not being credited to the seller’s account on time.
Handling Shortages in Funds Settlement: To handle shortages in funds settlement, the following measures are typically taken:
- Failed Trade Resolution: The relevant parties, including settlement banks and the central bank, work to resolve failed trades and investigate the reasons for payment delays.
- Funds Recall and Resend: If the funds transfer fails initially, the sending bank may recall the funds and resend the payment to the correct account.
- Contingency Funding: Market participants may establish contingency funding arrangements to handle potential settlement failures and shortages.
- Communication and Collaboration: Effective communication between settlement banks and market participants is crucial to identify and address shortages promptly.
Risks in settlement
Settlement in financial markets involves the final transfer of securities and funds between buyers and sellers after a trade is executed. While settlement is a routine process, it is not without risks. Various risks associated with settlement can lead to settlement failures or delays, which may have significant implications for market participants and the overall stability of the financial system. Some of the key risks in settlement include:
Counterparty Risk:
Counterparty risk, also known as credit risk, arises when one party involved in a trade fails to fulfill its obligations. For example, if the seller fails to deliver the securities or the buyer fails to make the payment on the settlement date, it can lead to settlement failure. Counterparty risk is particularly relevant in over-the-counter (OTC) markets, where trades are conducted directly between parties without the involvement of a central counterparty.
Settlement Risk:
Settlement risk refers to the risk that the final transfer of securities and funds between buyer and seller does not occur as expected. It is prevalent in the case of cross-border transactions, where settlement in different time zones may lead to a temporal mismatch in asset transfers. Settlement risk can expose market participants to potential losses due to non-delivery or non-payment.
Liquidity Risk:
Liquidity risk in settlement arises when there is insufficient liquidity in the market to facilitate the smooth settlement of trades. In illiquid markets, it may be challenging to find counterparties willing to take the other side of the trade, leading to delays or difficulties in completing settlements.
Operational Risk:
Operational risk pertains to the risk of losses resulting from inadequate or failed internal processes, systems, or human errors. Settlement processes involve multiple steps, and any operational failures, such as technical glitches or data entry errors, can lead to settlement delays or errors.
Herding Risk:
Herding risk occurs when many market participants attempt to settle trades simultaneously, leading to congestion in settlement systems. This situation can strain settlement infrastructure and result in delays or operational inefficiencies.
Market Risk:
Market risk arises due to fluctuations in the prices of securities between the trade execution and settlement dates. If the price of the security changes significantly during this period, it can lead to potential losses for one of the parties involved.
Systemic Risk:
Systemic risk refers to risks that can affect the entire financial system. Settlement failures on a large scale can create systemic risks, impacting market confidence and stability.
To mitigate settlement risks, financial markets employ risk management measures, including trade reconciliation, real-time settlement monitoring, use of central counterparties (CCPs) to reduce counterparty risk, and proper collateral management. Regulatory authorities also play a crucial role in overseeing settlement processes, setting standards, and implementing rules to ensure efficient and secure settlement in financial markets.